I. Early Life: A Prelude to Majesty
Parentage and Birth
Xerxes I, often exalted by the epithet “The Great,” was born into the resplendent lineage of the Achaemenid Empire, which, at its zenith, sprawled across vast expanses from the Indus Valley to the edges of Greece. His illustrious birth took place in the grand capital of Persepolis around 519 BCE, during the reign of his father, Darius I, a monarch who had expanded the Persian dominion to unparalleled heights. His mother, Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, further infused Xerxes’ bloodline with the regal essence of Persia’s revered founder. The very air that filled his lungs upon his first breath was imbued with the grandeur of a dynasty steeped in glory and laden with the formidable responsibility of empire.
Atossa, being a woman of formidable intellect and regal bearing, was not merely a consort to Darius but an influential figure in her own right. Her counsel and guidance were instrumental in shaping the early years of Xerxes, embedding within him the principles of governance, strategy, and diplomacy. From his mother, he inherited not just the blood of Cyrus but the indomitable spirit that would come to define his reign.
Upbringing and Education
In the cradle of opulence that was Persepolis, young Xerxes was nurtured amidst an atmosphere of splendor and erudition. His education was entrusted to the most sagacious of tutors, men of profound wisdom drawn from across the empire, who imparted to him the knowledge of history, the arts of governance, and the subtleties of warfare. He was taught the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, the religion of his people, which instilled in him a sense of divine duty and moral rectitude.
Xerxes was also trained in the arts of combat, for he was not merely to be a king but a warrior-king, one who would lead his armies from the front. His instructors in the martial disciplines were veterans of many campaigns, who taught him the use of the bow, the spear, and the chariot. They also instilled in him the virtues of courage, discipline, and honor, which were to be the hallmarks of his military career.
As he grew into manhood, Xerxes was further seasoned by the responsibilities bestowed upon him by his father. He was appointed as satrap of Babylonia, where he learned the intricacies of administration and governance. The young prince’s time in Babylonia was a crucial period of apprenticeship, during which he gained firsthand experience in managing the diverse and often turbulent affairs of a vast province.
Accession to the Throne
The death of Darius I in 486 BCE marked a pivotal moment in the life of Xerxes. The succession was not without its challenges, for the Persian throne was a coveted seat, and rival claimants were not unheard of. Among them was Artobarzanes, Xerxes’ elder half-brother, who contested the throne on the basis of seniority. However, Xerxes’ claim was bolstered by his mother Atossa’s lineage, as well as by the explicit endorsement of Darius I, who had named Xerxes his successor.
The internal dissent was quelled with a combination of diplomacy and force, a testament to Xerxes’ burgeoning political acumen. Upon ascending the throne, Xerxes inherited not just the crown but the immense responsibilities that came with it—the stewardship of an empire that spanned three continents, and the legacy of his forebears, which he was bound by honor to uphold.
Consolidation of Power
Xerxes’ initial years as king were dedicated to consolidating his power and stabilizing the empire. He swiftly addressed the revolts that had erupted in Egypt and Babylon, both of which had attempted to exploit the transition of power to assert their independence. Xerxes personally led the campaign against the Egyptian insurgents, crushing the rebellion with decisive force and reasserting Persian dominance over the region.
In Babylon, the situation was more complex, given the city’s importance as a cultural and economic center. Here, Xerxes demonstrated a combination of military might and strategic acumen, successfully subduing the rebellious factions and imposing his authority. The Babylonian revolt was quashed, and Xerxes took measures to prevent further uprisings, including the symbolic act of melting down the statue of the Babylonian deity Marduk, which had previously been used in coronation rituals, signaling the subjugation of Babylon’s spiritual as well as temporal power.
These actions, while severe, were deemed necessary to maintain the integrity of the empire. With these rebellions quelled, Xerxes solidified his rule, ensuring that his authority was unchallenged across the vast territories of Persia. It was only after securing his position at home that he could turn his attention to the grand ambitions that would define his reign—chief among them, the conquest of Greece.
II. Campaigns: The Pursuit of Glory
Invasion of the Greek Mainland
The invasion of Greece, which would come to define Xerxes’ reign, was an endeavor of immense scale and ambition. This campaign was not merely a continuation of his father Darius’ efforts, which had been thwarted at the Battle of Marathon, but a monumental expedition designed to bring the entire Greek mainland under Persian dominion.
Preparations for the campaign began long before the first Persian soldier set foot on Greek soil. Xerxes ordered the construction of a massive pontoon bridge across the Hellespont, a feat of engineering that allowed his vast army to march from Asia into Europe. This bridge, constructed from hundreds of ships lashed together, was both a practical necessity and a demonstration of Persian ingenuity and power.
Xerxes’ army, by all accounts, was one of the largest ever assembled. Contemporary historians such as Herodotus estimated the force at over a million men, though modern scholars suggest a smaller but still formidable number. This army was a diverse coalition of troops drawn from across the empire, representing the many peoples and cultures under Persian rule. It included the elite Immortals, a force of ten thousand men who served as the king’s personal guard, as well as contingents of cavalry, archers, and infantry from every corner of the empire.
The Persian fleet, which accompanied the land forces, was equally impressive. Comprising hundreds of warships, it was intended to secure the sea routes and provide support to the land campaign. The fleet played a crucial role in the early stages of the invasion, particularly in the Battle of Artemisium, where it engaged the Greek navy in a series of skirmishes.
The scale of the invasion was unprecedented, and Xerxes was confident in the success of his enterprise. He personally led the army, a gesture that not only demonstrated his commitment but also served to inspire his troops. The Great King’s presence on the battlefield was a powerful symbol of Persian might, and his every move was watched with awe by both his own men and the Greeks.
Battle of Thermopylae and Destruction of Athens
The advance of Xerxes’ forces into Greece was initially marked by a series of successes. The Persian army swept through Thrace and Macedonia, encountering little resistance as it advanced southward. However, the first major test of the campaign came at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, where a small force of Greek soldiers, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, made a heroic stand against the Persian juggernaut.
The Battle of Thermopylae, though ultimately a Persian victory, became legendary for the bravery of the Greek defenders. For three days, Leonidas and his men held the pass, inflicting heavy casualties on the Persian forces. Their resistance delayed the Persian advance and allowed the Greek city-states to prepare for the battles to come. Despite their valiant efforts, the Greeks were eventually overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of the Persian army, and the pass was taken. Leonidas and his men fought to the last, their sacrifice becoming a symbol of Greek valor and resistance.
With Thermopylae secured, Xerxes’ army continued its march into central Greece. The Persian forces encountered little resistance as they advanced toward Athens, which had been largely evacuated by its citizens in anticipation of the invasion. The city was left in the hands of a small garrison, which offered only token resistance before being overwhelmed.
Xerxes ordered the destruction of Athens as retribution for the burning of Sardis during the Ionian Revolt, an act of defiance that had sparked the ongoing conflict between Persia and Greece. The Persians set fire to the Acropolis and razed much of the city to the ground. The destruction of Athens was a profound shock to the Greek world, a stark demonstration of Persian power and a warning to those who might oppose the Great King.
Battles of Salamis and Plataea
However, the tide of war was soon to turn against Xerxes. The Battle of Salamis, fought in the narrow straits between the island of Salamis and the Athenian mainland, was a decisive encounter that would alter the course of the campaign. The Greek navy, under the command of Themistocles, lured the Persian fleet into the straits, where the larger Persian ships found it difficult to maneuver. The Greek triremes, smaller and more agile, exploited this advantage, launching a devastating attack that shattered the Persian fleet.
The loss at Salamis was a severe blow to Xerxes’ ambitions. The destruction of the fleet left his army stranded in Greece, cut off from supply lines and reinforcements. Realizing the precariousness of his position, Xerxes decided to withdraw the bulk of his forces, leaving a smaller contingent under the command of his general Mardonius to continue the campaign.
The final blow to Xerxes’ hopes of conquering Greece came at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. Here, a united Greek army, composed of troops from various city-states, confronted the Persian forces. The battle was fiercely contested, but the Greeks, driven by the desire to protect their homeland, ultimately prevailed. Mardonius was killed in the fighting, and the Persian army was routed.
With the defeat at Plataea, Xerxes’ ambitions in Greece were definitively crushed. The remnants of his forces retreated across the Hellespont, and the dream of extending Persian dominion over the Greek mainland was abandoned. The campaign, which had begun with such grand aspirations, ended in failure, and the Great King returned to Persia to lick his wounds.
III. Construction Projects: The Legacy of Stone
While Xerxes’ military campaigns are perhaps the most well-known aspects of his reign, his contributions to the architectural and cultural legacy of Persia are equally significant. Upon his return to Persia after the Greek campaign, Xerxes devoted much of his energy to the construction of monumental projects that would immortalize his reign and reflect the grandeur of the Achaemenid Empire.
The Completion of Persepolis
One of Xerxes’ most significant contributions was the continuation of the construction of Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the empire. Founded by his father Darius, Persepolis was envisioned as a symbol of the power and glory of the Achaemenid dynasty. Xerxes took great care in completing the various structures that had been started during his father’s reign, ensuring that the city would stand as a testament to Persian civilization.
Among the most notable projects was the construction of the Hall of a Hundred Columns, one of the largest and most impressive structures in Persepolis. This grand audience hall, supported by a forest of towering columns, was used for royal receptions and ceremonial occasions. The reliefs that adorned its walls depicted scenes of tribute-bearing delegations from across the empire, a visual representation of the vastness and diversity of the Persian realm.
Xerxes also completed the construction of the Apadana, the great audience hall of Persepolis, which had been initiated by Darius. The Apadana’s massive columns, with their intricately carved capitals featuring the heads of bulls and lions, symbolized the strength and authority of the king. The hall could accommodate thousands of people and was used for the most important state functions, including the reception of ambassadors and the celebration of Nowruz, the Persian New Year.
The Gate of All Nations
Another significant architectural contribution of Xerxes was the construction of the Gate of All Nations, a monumental entrance to the royal complex at Persepolis. This structure, with its massive stone pillars and winged bull statues, was designed to impress and awe all who entered the city. The name itself, “Gate of All Nations,” reflected the cosmopolitan nature of the Achaemenid Empire, where peoples of diverse cultures and languages were united under the rule of the Great King.
The reliefs that adorned the gate depicted scenes of delegates from various nations bringing tribute to the Persian king, symbolizing the unity and diversity of the empire. The gate served as a reminder of the vastness of Xerxes’ dominion and the many peoples who lived under his protection and authority.
Waterways and Canals
In addition to his architectural achievements, Xerxes also undertook significant infrastructural projects. One of the most ambitious was the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Mount Athos, in northern Greece. This canal was intended to provide a safe passage for the Persian fleet, avoiding the treacherous waters around the mountain that had claimed many ships during earlier expeditions.
The canal was a remarkable feat of engineering, measuring over two kilometers in length and cutting through solid rock. Although it was completed in time for the Greek campaign, its strategic significance was diminished by the subsequent Persian defeat. Nevertheless, the canal remained a testament to Xerxes’ determination and the capabilities of Persian engineering.
IV. Death and Succession: The End of an Era
Xerxes I, who had once seemed invincible, met an untimely and ignoble end in 465 BCE. His death did not come on the battlefield, nor was it a result of old age, but rather through assassination, a fate that befell many rulers in the ancient world. The exact circumstances surrounding his assassination remain shrouded in mystery, but it is believed that Xerxes was murdered in his bedchamber by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard, with the assistance of one of Xerxes’ own courtiers.
Artabanus, it seems, had ambitions of seizing the throne for himself or placing a more pliant figure on the throne. However, his machinations were ultimately thwarted, and after a brief power struggle, Xerxes’ son, Artaxerxes I, ascended to the throne. The transition was not without bloodshed, as Artaxerxes sought to eliminate those who had been involved in the conspiracy against his father.
Xerxes’ death marked the end of an era. His reign, while marred by the failure of the Greek campaign, had seen the consolidation of the empire and the continuation of the grand projects that would define the Achaemenid dynasty. His legacy was a complex one—he was both a warrior king and a builder, a ruler who sought to expand the empire and a monarch who left behind monumental structures that would endure for centuries.
V. Religion: The King’s Divine Mandate
Religion played a central role in the life and reign of Xerxes I, as it did in the lives of all Persian kings. The Achaemenid rulers were devout adherents of Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Persia, which was centered around the worship of Ahura Mazda, the supreme god of wisdom, light, and truth. Xerxes, like his predecessors, saw himself as the chosen instrument of Ahura Mazda, ruling by divine mandate and charged with upholding the cosmic order, or Asha.
Throughout his reign, Xerxes demonstrated his piety through various acts of devotion and patronage. He commissioned the construction and restoration of temples dedicated to Ahura Mazda and other deities, both within Persia and in the provinces. Inscriptions from his reign frequently invoke Ahura Mazda, expressing the king’s belief that his success in governance and warfare was due to the favor of the god.
One of the most famous inscriptions, found at Persepolis, records Xerxes’ dedication to upholding the faith: “By the grace of Ahura Mazda, I built this gate… and I have built it with the utmost care. May Ahura Mazda protect me and my kingdom, and may he deliver the people from lies and the followers of the Lie.” This reference to the “Lie” is a key concept in Zoroastrianism, representing falsehood and chaos, against which the king was expected to struggle.
Xerxes also took steps to suppress religious practices that he viewed as contrary to Zoroastrian teachings. In particular, he is known to have ordered the destruction of certain temples in Babylon, where the worship of local gods conflicted with the supremacy of Ahura Mazda. This action, while politically motivated, also reflected Xerxes’ desire to promote the Zoroastrian faith and establish it as the dominant religion within his empire.
VI. Wives and Children: The Royal Household
Xerxes’ domestic life, like that of many ancient kings, was complex and often fraught with political implications. As a monarch, Xerxes was expected to maintain a household that reflected the grandeur of his position, and his marriages were often arranged with the aim of securing alliances and strengthening his rule.
Queen Amestris
The most prominent of Xerxes’ wives was Amestris, who was of noble Persian lineage and is often depicted in historical accounts as a woman of considerable influence and determination. Amestris was the daughter of Otanes, one of the seven noblemen who had played a crucial role in securing Darius I’s accession to the throne. Her marriage to Xerxes thus reinforced the alliance between the royal family and the Persian nobility.
Amestris bore Xerxes several children, including his successor, Artaxerxes I. She was a formidable queen, known for her loyalty to her husband and her unwavering support for his reign. However, she was also a figure of controversy, with some ancient sources attributing to her acts of cruelty and revenge, though such accounts may have been exaggerated by later historians seeking to cast the Persian court in a negative light.
Other Wives and Concubines
In addition to Amestris, Xerxes is believed to have had several other wives and concubines, as was customary for Persian kings. These women, drawn from various regions of the empire, were often chosen for their beauty, their noble birth, or their political connections. The children born of these unions were raised in the royal court, where they received an education befitting their status.
One of Xerxes’ sons by another wife was Hystaspes, who played a prominent role in the administration of the empire, serving as a satrap in the eastern provinces. Another notable offspring was his daughter, Amytis, who was married to the Median prince Megabyzus, thereby cementing an important alliance with the Median nobility.
VII. Reception: The Legacy of Xerxes the Great
The legacy of Xerxes I has been the subject of much debate among historians, both ancient and modern. In the Western tradition, particularly among the Greeks, Xerxes is often portrayed as the archetypal despot—a ruler whose hubris led him to overreach, ultimately bringing about his downfall. Herodotus, the “Father of History,” depicts Xerxes as a figure of immense power and ambition, but also one whose character flaws, such as his excessive pride and propensity for anger, led to his defeat in the Greek campaign.
This portrayal has had a lasting impact on the way Xerxes is viewed in Western literature and popular culture. He is often depicted as the villain in the grand narrative of the Greco-Persian Wars, a symbol of oriental tyranny standing in contrast to the perceived freedom and valor of the Greeks. The Battle of Thermopylae, in particular, has become enshrined in Western memory as a heroic stand against overwhelming odds, with Xerxes cast as the antagonist.
However, this perspective does not do justice to the complexity of Xerxes’ reign. Within Persia and among the peoples of the empire, Xerxes was regarded as a strong and capable ruler who upheld the traditions of the Achaemenid dynasty and maintained the stability of a vast and diverse empire. His contributions to Persian architecture and culture were significant, and his efforts to consolidate the empire in the face of internal and external challenges were largely successful.
Modern historians have sought to reevaluate Xerxes’ legacy, taking into account the broader context of his reign. While his failure to subjugate Greece is often highlighted, it is important to recognize that Xerxes ruled over the largest empire the world had yet seen, and his achievements in governance, construction, and administration were considerable. His legacy, therefore, is not solely defined by his military ventures, but also by his role in preserving and enhancing the cultural and political fabric of the Achaemenid Empire.
Xerxes I remains a figure of enduring fascination—a monarch whose ambitions and deeds have left an indelible mark on history. His reign, though marked by challenges and setbacks, was also a period of great cultural and architectural achievement. As we look back on his life and legacy, we are reminded of the complexities of power, the weight of kingship, and the enduring impact of those who, like Xerxes, sought to shape the course of history through their deeds and visions.
